it vary from place to place? Is there an identifiable national archives policy and system in each country? The second theme is identifying a complex and distinct occupation or work group for archivists and records managers. The late 19th century saw a growing awareness of professional archival work in many countries, although it was often carried out by historians working in national archives or with historical manuscripts. Modern European national archives began to be established after 1794, beginning in France, followed by the appointment of a national archivist in the Netherlands in 1802, the establishment of the Public Record Office in England in 1838 and the Archivo Historico Nacional in Spain in 1866.6 In the USA, state historical societies collected historical manuscripts, beginning in Massachusetts in 1791, and state archives departments were founded following the work of the Public Archives Commission in 18997 Canada also developed provincial historical archives, starting with the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec in 1824, and appointed a dominion archivist in 1872.8 When did an occupational area devoted to archives and records begin to exist and when did it become distinct from other occupations? How have national and local, public and private archives developed historically? Which factors have influenced and hindered developments? Are services delivered as independent archives and records services, or do they now form part of larger cultural or administrative functions in organisations? How should archival structures change to meet present and future needs? The third theme is the existence and development of an exclusive professional organisation. Archives provide a focus for leisure and a resource for cultural and legal research; records have value for accountability and as part of the information compliance and services of institutions. People interested in archives, such as genealogists, record agents, local historians, academics, editors, students, businessmen and lawyers, met together in many countries and formed societies from the late 19th century onwards. The first professional archival association in the world was founded in the Netherlands in 1891, an international congress of archivists was held in Brussels in 1910, and archival associations developed in England (Society of Archivists) and the USA (Society of American Archivists) in the 1930s and in Australia (Australian Society of Archivists) in 1975.9 What were the circumstances and reasons for the formation of associations and for their policy development? How and why did professional standards and ethics develop? What contribution did the professional bodies make to research, publication and professional development? ELIZABETH SHEPHERD ARCHIVISTS IN 21ST CENTURY EUROPE: EMERGING PROFESSIONALS? 8 Ian E Wilson, 'A noble dream: the origins of the Public Archives of Canada', Archivaria, 15 (1982-83): 16-35; Carol Couture, 'Taking stock: the evolution of archival science in Quebec', Archivaria, 59 (2005): 27-39; Laura Millar, 'Discharging our debt: the evolution of the total archives concept in English Canada', Archivaria, 46 (1998): 103-146; Terry Cook, 'An archival revolution: W Kaye Lamb and the transformation of the archival profession', Archivaria, 60 (2005): 185-234; WG Ormsby, 'The Public Archives of Canada, 1948-1968', Archivaria, 15 (1982-83): 36-46. 9 S McKemmish Michael Piggott (eds), The Records Continuum: Ian Maclean and Australian Archives first fifty years (Clayton, Aus: Ancora Press Australian Archives, 1994); RC Sharman, 'Modest practitioners: Australian archival achievements since 1944', Australian Library Journal, 23: 6 (1974): 203-211; T Ling, 'The Commonwealth's first Archives Bill 1927', Archives and Manuscripts, 29: 1 (2001): 98-109. 41

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